Biofilms in human and veterinary infections: a central link in one health frameworks
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.66585/ohmi.2026.2.0021Schlagwörter:
Biofilms, One Health, Antimicrobial resistance, veterinary medicine, human medicine, healthcare-associated infections, medical deviceAbstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is widely recognized as a One Health (OH) challenge requiring coordinated action across the human, veterinary, and environmental sectors. However, current frameworks primarily focus on antimicrobial use, transmission pathways, and resistant organisms, while largely overlooking the ecological source from which resistance develops. Biofilms, the predominant lifestyle of many clinically relevant microorganisms, represent such a source. Their extracellular matrix and phenotypic heterogeneity contribute to antimicrobial tolerance, while their spatial arrangement facilitates horizontal gene transfer, making biofilms reservoirs for AMR evolution. Biofilm-associated infections are common in both human and veterinary medicine, including surgical site infections (SSIs), chronic wounds, periodontal disease, and device-related infections. Despite similarities in causative pathogens, infection biology, antimicrobial exposure, and clinical management, these infections are largely investigated independently. Opportunities to identify shared biological mechanisms and develop cross-sector preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic strategies remain unexplored. This opinion article proposes to implement the OH Biofilm framework, recognizing biofilms as shared ecological and evolutionary entities across human and veterinary medicine. SSIs and periodontitis are used as illustrative examples to demonstrate the similarities between the two sectors. Integrating biofilm biology into OH surveillance, research, prevention, diagnostics, and antimicrobial stewardship may provide a more mechanistic and effective framework for combating AMR.
Literaturhinweise
1. James R, Hardefeldt LY, Ierano C, Charani E, Dowson L, Elkins S, et al. Antimicrobial stewardship from a One Health perspective. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2026;24(2):146-62. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-025-01233-3
2. Velazquez-Meza ME, Galarde-López M, Carrillo-Quiróz B, Alpuche-Aranda CM. Antimicrobial resistance: One Health approach. Vet World. 2022;15(3):743-9. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2022.743-749
3. Domouchtsidou A, Ioannou P, Lianou A, Tsante KA, Tsakri D, Bonova E, et al. Biofilms in clinical infection: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and the evolving therapeutic landscape. J Clin Microbiol. 2026;64(3):e0104225. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.01042-25
4. Ragupathi H, Pushparaj MM, Gopi SM, Govindarajan DK, Kandaswamy K. Biofilm matrix: a multifaceted layer of biomolecules and a defensive barrier against antimicrobials. Arch Microbiol. 2024;206(11):432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00203-024-04157-3
5. Hendricks AL, More KR, Devaraj A, Buzzo JR, Robledo-Avila FH, Partida-Sanchez S, et al. Bacterial biofilm-derived H-NS protein acts as a defense against Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs). npj Biofilms and Microbiomes. 2025;11(1):58. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41522-025-00691-0
6. Banas JA, Miller JD, Fuschino ME, Hazlett KR, Toyofuku W, Porter KA, et al. Evidence that accumulation of mutants in a biofilm reflects natural selection rather than stress-induced adaptive mutation. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007;73(1):357-61. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02014-06
7. Usui M, Yoshii Y, Thiriet-Rupert S, Ghigo J-M, Beloin C. Intermittent antibiotic treatment of bacterial biofilms favors the rapid evolution of resistance. Communications Biology. 2023;6(1):275. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-04601-y
8. Grari O, Ezrari S, El Yandouzi I, Benaissa E, Ben Lahlou Y, Lahmer M, et al. A comprehensive review on biofilm-associated infections: Mechanisms, diagnostic challenges, and innovative therapeutic strategies. The Microbe. 2025;8:100436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microb.2025.100436
9. Liu HY, Prentice EL, Webber MA. Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in biofilms. npj Antimicrobials and Resistance. 2024;2(1):27. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44259-024-00046-3
10. Yaki LM. Bacterial biofilms and antimicrobial resistance: a global threat. Discover Bacteria. 2026;3(1):15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44351-025-00035-5
11. Jacques M, Malouin F. One Health-One Biofilm. Vet Res. 2022;53(1):51. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13567-022-01067-4
12. Kim J-S, Chowdhury N, Yamasaki R, Wood TK. Viable but non-culturable and persistence describe the same bacterial stress state. Environmental Microbiology. 2018;20(6):2038-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.14075
13. Werneburg GT. Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections: Current Challenges and Future Prospects. Res Rep Urol. 2022;14:109-33. https://doi.org/10.2147/RRU.S273663
14. Yu Y, Li X, Ouyang B, Fang W, Hu B, Liu F, et al. Practice guideline on the prevention and treatment of central line-associated bloodstream infection: Part 1––Diagnosis and prevention. Journal of Intensive Medicine. 2026;6(2):83-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jointm.2025.10.008
15. Cabanillas Díez-Madroñero C, Raboso Moreno B, Urrutia-Royo B, González Muñoz I, Erro Iribarren M, Pou Álvarez C, et al. Nosocomial and Ventilator-associated Pneumonia. Open Respiratory Archives. 2025;7(4):100488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.opresp.2025.100488
16. Patel R. Periprosthetic Joint Infection. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(3):251-62. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmra2203477
17. Moriarty TF, Metsemakers WJ, Morgenstern M, Hofstee MI, Vallejo Diaz A, Cassat JE, et al. Fracture-related infection. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2022;8(1):67. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-022-00396-0
18. De Silva K, Fife A, Murgatroyd F, Gall N. Pacemaker endocarditis: an important clinical entity. BMJ Case Rep. 2009;2009. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr.02.2009.1608
19. Hasse B, Husmann L, Zinkernagel A, Weber R, Lachat M, Mayer D. Vascular graft infections. Swiss Med Wkly. 2013;143:w13754. https://doi.org/10.4414/smw.2013.13754
20. Rokaya D, Srimaneepong V, Wisitrasameewon W, Humagain M, Thunyakitpisal P. Peri-implantitis Update: Risk Indicators, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Eur J Dent. 2020;14(4):672-82. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1715779
21. Faccin M, Wiener DJ, Rech RR, Santoro D, Rodrigues Hoffmann A. Common superficial and deep cutaneous bacterial infections in domestic animals: A review. Veterinary Pathology. 2023;60(6):796-811. https://doi.org/10.1177/03009858231176558
22. Wei AY, Thompson MF, Worthing KA, Venturini C, Brookes VJ, Norris JM. Frequency and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of bacterial species isolated from canine and feline urine samples in Sydney, Australia, 2012–2021. Veterinary Microbiology. 2025;306:110541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2025.110541
23. Thomas C, Amsellem P, Nascene D, Huang YH. Orthopedic applications of 3D printing in canine veterinary medicine. Front Vet Sci. 2025;12:1582720. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1582720
24. Aponrat P, Detkalaya O, Phlongtong N, Eksatit N, Kananub S, Kaewmongkol S, et al. Hospital-acquired catheter-associated urinary tract infections in critical care unit dogs with high rates of multidrug-resistant organisms. Open Vet J. 2025;15(1):339-47. https://doi.org/10.5455/ovj.2025.v15.i1.32
25. Bach A, Just A, Berthold H, Ehmke H, Kirchheim H, Borneff-Lipp M, et al. Catheter-related infections in long-term catheterized dogs. Observations on pathogenesis, diagnostic methods, and antibiotic lock technique. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie. 1998;288(4):541-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0934-8840(98)80074-1
26. Ruple-Czerniak A, Aceto HW, Bender JB, Paradis MR, Shaw SP, Van Metre DC, et al. Using syndromic surveillance to estimate baseline rates for healthcare-associated infections in critical care units of small animal referral hospitals. J Vet Intern Med. 2013;27(6):1392-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.12190
27. Nelson LL. Surgical site infections in small animal surgery. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2011;41(5):1041-56, viii. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.05.010
28. Guarch-Pérez C, Riool M, de Boer L, Kloen P, Zaat SAJ. Bacterial reservoir in deeper skin is a potential source for surgical site and biomaterial-associated infections. J Hosp Infect. 2023;140:62-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2023.07.014
29. Cheung GYC, Otto M. Virulence Mechanisms of Staphylococcal Animal Pathogens. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241914587
30. Lynch SA, Helbig KJ. The Complex Diseases of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in Canines: Where to Next? Vet Sci. 2021;8(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8010011
31. Khaled AAE-R, Abouelhag HA. Bridging the Infected Defect: Modern Strategies for Canine Fracture‑Related Osteomyelitis. Ricos Biology. 2026;4(4):10-4. https://doi.org/10.33687/ricosbiol.04.04.114
32. Bibby HL, Brown KL. Identification of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius Isolates from Wound Cultures by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry Improves Accuracy of Susceptibility Reporting at an Increase in Cost. J Clin Microbiol. 2021;59(11):e0097321. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.00973-21
33. Costa SS, Ribeiro R, Serrano M, Oliveira K, Ferreira C, Leal M, et al. Staphylococcus aureus Causing Skin and Soft Tissue Infections in Companion Animals: Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles and Clonal Lineages. Antibiotics (Basel). 2022;11(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11050599
34. Bannoehr J, Brown JK, Shaw DJ, Fitzgerald RJ, van den Broek AH, Thoday KL. Staphylococccus pseudintermedius surface proteins SpsD and SpsO mediate adherence to ex vivo canine corneocytes. Vet Dermatol. 2012;23(2):119-24, e26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3164.2011.01021.x
35. Viela F, Mathelié-Guinlet M, Pietrocola G, Speziale P, Dufrêne YF. The Molecular Complex between Staphylococcal Adhesin SpsD and Fibronectin Sustains Mechanical Forces in the Nanonewton Range. mBio. 2020;11(4). https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.00371-20
36. Geoghegan JA, Smith EJ, Speziale P, Foster TJ. Staphylococcus pseudintermedius expresses surface proteins that closely resemble those from Staphylococcus aureus. Veterinary Microbiology. 2009;138(3):345-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.03.030
37. Paul NC, Latronico F, Moodley A, Nielsen SS, Damborg P, Guardabassi L. In vitro adherence of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius to canine corneocytes is influenced by colonization status of corneocyte donors. Vet Res. 2013;44(1):52. https://doi.org/10.1186/1297-9716-44-52
38. Branford I, Butaye P, Khine NO, Chapwanya A, Toka FN. The dynamic interplay between Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and canine immunity: mechanisms of pathogenesis, evasion, and vaccination perspectives. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2026;16:1812880. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2026.1812880
39. Teixeira IM, de Moraes Assumpção Y, Paletta ACC, Antunes M, da Silva IT, Jaeger LH, et al. Investigation on biofilm composition and virulence traits of S. pseudintermedius isolated from infected and colonized dogs. Braz J Microbiol. 2024;55(3):2923-36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-024-01405-y
40. Wang Z, Guo L, Li J, Cui L, Dong J, Meng X, et al. Antibiotic resistance, biofilm formation, and virulence factors of isolates of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius from healthy dogs and dogs with keratitis. Front Vet Sci. 2022;9:903633. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.903633
41. Idrees M, Sawant S, Karodia N, Rahman A. Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm: Morphology, Genetics, Pathogenesis and Treatment Strategies. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(14). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147602
42. Devriese LA, Vancanneyt M, Baele M, Vaneechoutte M, De Graef E, Snauwaert C, et al. Staphylococcus pseudintermedius sp. nov., a coagulase-positive species from animals. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2005;55(Pt 4):1569-73. https://doi.org/0.1099/ijs.0.63413-0
43. McAdow M, Missiakas DM, Schneewind O. Staphylococcus aureus secretes coagulase and von Willebrand factor binding protein to modify the coagulation cascade and establish host infections. J Innate Immun. 2012;4(2):141-8. https://doi.org/10.1159/000333447
44. Kmieciak W, Szewczyk EM, Ciszewski M. Searching for Beta-Haemolysin hlb Gene in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius with Species-Specific Primers. Curr Microbiol. 2016;73(1):148-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-016-1038-4
45. Carroll KC, Burnham CD, Westblade LF. From canines to humans: Clinical importance of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius. PLoS Pathog. 2021;17(12):e1009961. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1009961
46. Vandenesch F, Lina G, Henry T. Staphylococcus aureus hemolysins, bi-component leukocidins, and cytolytic peptides: a redundant arsenal of membrane-damaging virulence factors? Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2012;2:12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2012.00012
47. Yoong P, Torres VJ. The effects of Staphylococcus aureus leukotoxins on the host: cell lysis and beyond. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2013;16(1):63-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2013.01.012
48. Balachandran M, Bemis DA, Kania SA. Expression and function of protein A in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius. Virulence. 2018;9(1):390-401. https://doi.org/10.1080/21505594.2017.1403710
49. Nocera FP, De Martino L. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: epidemiological changes, antibiotic resistance, and alternative therapeutic strategies. Vet Res Commun. 2024;48(6):3505-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-024-10508-8
50. Abebe AA, Birhanu AG. Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Drug Resistance Development and Novel Strategies to Combat. Infect Drug Resist. 2023;16:7641-62. https://doi.org/10.2147/idr.s428103
51. Hashim NT, Babiker R, Padmanabhan V, Ahmed AT, Chaitanya NCSK, Mohammed R, et al. The Global Burden of Periodontal Disease: A Narrative Review on Unveiling Socioeconomic and Health Challenges. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health [Internet]. 2025; 22(4):624. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040624
52. Hendy E, Behery AE, Gomaa M, Abd El Raouf M, Ezzeldein SA. Overview of Periodontal Disease in Dogs and Cats. J Vet Dent. 2026;43(4):332-41. https://doi.org/10.1177/08987564261424349
53. Łasica A, Golec P, Laskus A, Zalewska M, Gędaj M, Popowska M. Periodontitis: etiology, conventional treatments, and emerging bacteriophage and predatory bacteria therapies. Front Microbiol. 2024;15:1469414. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1469414
54. Berezow AB, Darveau RP. Microbial shift and periodontitis. Periodontol 2000. 2011;55(1):36-47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0757.2010.00350.x
55. Belibasakis GN, Belstrøm D, Eick S, Gursoy UK, Johansson A, Könönen E. Periodontal microbiology and microbial etiology of periodontal diseases: Historical concepts and contemporary perspectives. Periodontol 2000. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1111/prd.12473
56. Cunha E, Tavares L, Oliveira M. Revisiting Periodontal Disease in Dogs: How to Manage This New Old Problem? Antibiotics (Basel). 2022;11(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11121729
57. Šakarnytė L, Mockeliūnas R, Šiugždinienė R, Merkevičienė L, Virgailis M, Dailidavičienė J, et al. Microbial Composition of Extracted Dental Alveoli in Dogs with Advanced Periodontitis. Microorganisms. 2024;12(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12071455
58. Bai Y, Song P, Shen Z, Shi H, Jiang Z, Lin J, et al. Porphyromonas gulae infection in canines, pet owners and veterinarians in China: an epidemiological study and risk factor analysis. One Health Advances. 2023;1(1):9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s44280-023-00007-x
59. Enersen M, Nakano K, Amano A. Porphyromonas gingivalis fimbriae. J Oral Microbiol. 2013;5. https://doi.org/10.3402/jom.v5i0.20265
60. Yoshida S, Inaba H, Nomura R, Nakano K, Matsumoto-Nakano M. Role of fimbriae variations in Porphyromonas gulae biofilm formation. J Oral Biosci. 2024;66(4):28-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.job.2024.08.003
61. Oishi Y, Watanabe K, Kumada H, Ishikawa E, Hamada N. Purification and characterization of a novel secondary fimbrial protein from Porphyromonas gulae. J Oral Microbiol. 2012;4. https://doi.org/10.3402/jom.v4i0.19076
62. Fujiwara-Takahashi K, Watanabe T, Shimogishi M, Shibasaki M, Umeda M, Izumi Y, et al. Phylogenetic diversity in fim and mfa gene clusters between Porphyromonas gingivalis and Porphyromonas gulae, as a potential cause of host specificity. J Oral Microbiol. 2020;12(1):1775333. https://doi.org/10.1080/20002297.2020.1775333
63. Li N, Collyer CA. Gingipains from Porphyromonas gingivalis - Complex domain structures confer diverse functions. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp). 2011;1(1):41-58. https://doi.org/10.1556/EuJMI.1.2011.1.7
64. Pedrosa ME, Martin V, Fernandes MH, Gomes PS. Gingipain inhibitors as an innovative therapy for periodontal and associated-systemic diseases: a systematic review. Clinical Oral Investigations. 2025;29(9):418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00784-025-06472-5
65. Morales-Olavarría M, Nuñez-Belmar J, González D, Vicencio E, Rivas-Pardo JA, Cortez C, et al. Phylogenomic analysis of the Porphyromonas gingivalis - Porphyromonas gulae duo: approaches to the origin of periodontitis. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1226166. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1226166
66. Gerits E, Verstraeten N, Michiels J. New approaches to combat Porphyromonas gingivalis biofilms. J Oral Microbiol. 2017;9(1):1300366. https://doi.org/10.1080/20002297.2017.1300366
67. Okamura H, Hirota K, Yoshida K, Weng Y, He Y, Shiotsu N, et al. Outer membrane vesicles of Porphyromonas gingivalis: Novel communication tool and strategy. Jpn Dent Sci Rev. 2021;57:138-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdsr.2021.07.003
68. Lambertz J, Buhl EM, Apel C, Preisinger C, Conrads G. Porphyromonas gingivalis Bundled Fimbriae Interact with Outer Membrane Vesicles, Commensals and Fibroblasts. Int J Mol Sci. 2025;27(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010383
69. Wang PL, Ohura K. Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide signaling in gingival fibroblasts-CD14 and Toll-like receptors. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2002;13(2):132-42. https://doi.org/10.1177/154411130201300204
70. Nativel B, Couret D, Giraud P, Meilhac O, d’Hellencourt CL, Viranaïcken W, et al. Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharides act exclusively through TLR4 with a resilience between mouse and human. Sci Rep. 2017;7:15789. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-16190-y
71. Diya Zhang, Lili Chen, Shenglai Li, Zhiyuan Gu, Jie Yan. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Porphyromonas gingivalis induces IL-1beta, TNF-alpha and IL-6 production by THP-1 cells in a way different from that of Escherichia coli LPS. Innate Immun. 2008;14(2):99-107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1753425907088244
72. Wingrove JA, DiScipio RG, Chen Z, Potempa J, Travis J, Hugli TE. Activation of complement components C3 and C5 by a cysteine proteinase (gingipain-1) from Porphyromonas (Bacteroides) gingivalis. J Biol Chem. 1992;267(26):18902-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9258(19)37046-2
73. Inaba H, Yoshida S, Nomura R, Kato Y, Asai F, Nakano K, et al. Porphyromonas gulae lipopolysaccharide elicits inflammatory responses through toll-like receptor 2 and 4 in human gingivalis epithelial cells. Cell Microbiol. 2020;22(12):e13254. https://doi.org/10.1111/cmi.13254
74. Nomura R, Inaba H, Yasuda H, Shirai M, Kato Y, Murakami M, et al. Inhibition of Porphyromonas gulae and periodontal disease in dogs by a combination of clindamycin and interferon alpha. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):3113. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-59730-9
75. Fukuyama T, Shirahata S, Miura T, Odajima K, Kobayashi T, Kawata R, et al. Cetylpyridinium chloride and platinum nanoparticles effects in dogs with Porphyromonas gulae-infected periodontal disease. Vet Res Commun. 2025;50(1):26. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-025-10945-z
76. Flemming H-C, Wingender J. The biofilm matrix. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2010;8(9):623-33. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2415
77. Conlon BP, Rowe SE, Lewis K. Persister cells in biofilm associated infections. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2015;831:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09782-4_1
78. Alav I, Sutton JM, Rahman KM. Role of bacterial efflux pumps in biofilm formation. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73(8):2003-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dky042
79. Santi I, Manfredi P, Maffei E, Egli A, Jenal U. Evolution of Antibiotic Tolerance Shapes Resistance Development in Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections. mBio. 2021;12(1). https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.03482-20
80. Michaelis C, Grohmann E. Horizontal Gene Transfer of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Biofilms. Antibiotics (Basel). 2023;12(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12020328
81. France MT, Cornea A, Kehlet-Delgado H, Forney LJ. Spatial structure facilitates the accumulation and persistence of antibiotic-resistant mutants in biofilms. Evol Appl. 2019;12(3):498-507. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12728
82. Manoharan-Basil SS, González N, Laumen JGE, Kenyon C. Horizontal Gene Transfer of Fluoroquinolone Resistance-Conferring Genes From Commensal Neisseria to Neisseria gonorrhoeae: A Global Phylogenetic Analysis of 20,047 Isolates. Front Microbiol. 2022;13:793612. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.793612
83. Nahum Y, Muhvich J, Morones-Ramirez JR, Casillas-Vega NG, Zaman MH. Biofilms as potential reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance in vulnerable settings. Front Public Health. 2025;13:1568463. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1568463
84. Flores-Vargas G, Bergsveinson J, Lawrence JR, Korber DR. Environmental Biofilms as Reservoirs for Antimicrobial Resistance. Front Microbiol. 2021;12:766242. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.7662
Veröffentlicht
Ausgabe
Rubrik
Lizenz
Copyright (c) 2026 Tiziano A. Schweizer (Author)
Dieses Werk steht unter der Lizenz Creative Commons Namensnennung - Nicht-kommerziell 4.0 International.
